two principal cities on the Sicilian coast, Messana and Syracuse, in order to establish their presence on the island. Rome responded by attacking Messana, forcing the Carthaginians to withdraw and later surrender, ceding Sicily and the Lipari islands to Rome. The great Carthaginian general, Hamilcar, led Carthage against Rome in the First Punic War, and his son Hannibal was made to swear eternal hostility against Rome at an early age as well. From the death of Hamilcar in 229 BC until his own death in 183 BC, Hannibal's life was one of constant struggle against the Roman Republic. Hannibal made good on his oath by instigating a second Punic war. During the Second Punic War Hannibal established base in Spain, from which he could wage war against Rome. Hannibal refused Rome's demand to withdraw from the Iberian Peninsula, and Rome renewed war on Carthage once again. Rome controlled the Sea, forcing Hannibal to lead his army overland through Spain, Gaul, and the Alps to reach Rome. After this spectacular achievement, Hannibal undermined Rome through battlefield tactics and shrewd political maneuvering. Once Hannibal's hold over northern Italy was established he maintained it until 203 BC, when he was ordered to return to Africa. Roman forces maintained pressure on Carthaginian strongholds, however, and eventually forced the Carthaginians out of Spain. Carthage accepted the terms of peace, surrendering its navy and ceded Spain as well as the Mediterranean islands to Rome. The first and second Punic wars effectively deprived Carthage of its political power, but did nothing to quell its commercial trade, which continued to expand rapidly. This inevitably drew the envy of Rome's growing mercantile community, and was reason enough for the Roman Republic to goad the people of Carthage into one final war. Despite determined and ingenious resistance against a siege that lasted for two years, Carthage fell. The third and final war between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginians resulted in the final destruction of Carthage, the enslavement of its population, and Roman hegemony over the western Mediterranean.